Original InvestigationFree-ranging domestic cats reduce the effective protected area of a Polish national park
Introduction
The domestic cat (Felis silvestris catus), together with the domestic dog (Canis lupus familiaris), is one of the most popular companion animals. Even though humans and cats have long coexisted, these animals maintain the ability to live in both residential neighbourhoods and in the wild and are capable of subsisting without help from their owners (Fitzgerald and Turner, 2000). Although some owners believe that the additional feeding of cats may decrease their willingness to hunt and that only hungry animals will more effectively eradicate pests such as rodents (Fitzgerald and Turner, 2000), even fed cats actively hunt (Liberg, 1984, Churcher and Lawton, 1987, Crooks and Soulé, 1999, Fitzgerald and Turner, 2000, Lepczyk et al., 2003, Woods et al., 2003, Kays and DeWan, 2004, Baker et al., 2010, van Heezik et al., 2010). Moreover, although feeding cats may reduce their motivation to hunt and thus decrease their per capita impacts on wildlife (Kays and DeWan, 2004, Silva-Rodríguez and Sieving, 2011), such human subsidies also allow cat populations to reach inflated densities that may result in high cumulative impacts on prey populations (Schmidt et al., 2007, Tennent and Downs, 2008).
Cats are extremely abundant in the majority of the world's countries. As of 1996, there were 5 million cats in Poland and 33 million in Central Europe (Turner and Bateson, 2000). Other authors estimate, based primarily on survey research, that there are about 9 million cats in Britain (Woods et al., 2003) and more than 100 million in the USA (Levy and Crawford, 2004, Robertson, 2008). The density of cats varies considerably, from less than 3 to more than 20 individuals per ha, depending mainly on food availability (Baker et al., 2010). Likewise, home range size varies between 0.002 km2 to 0.07 km2 for females and 0.008 km2 to 0.08 km2 for males in urban areas (Say and Pontier, 2004, Tennent and Downs, 2008), between 0.002 km2 to 0.01 km2 for females and 0.008 km2 to 0.11 km2 for males in suburban areas (Kays and DeWan, 2004, Schmidt et al., 2007, Morgan et al., 2009), and between 0.03 km2 to 0.87 km2 for females and 0.04 km2 to 4.30 km2 for males in natural woodlands and agroforestry areas (Meek, 2003, Ferreira et al., 2011). The home range of female cats is determined by abundance, availability and distribution of food and shelter, as these factors affect female reproductive success; that of males primarily depends on density of females, the degree of synchrony of female receptivity to mating and the size and stability of female groups (Sandell, 1989, Liberg et al., 2000, Say and Pontier, 2004).
The ecological impact of free-ranging domestic cats depends on a variety of conditions, including prey distribution and abundance, level of human reliance, individual differences and the presence of other carnivores (Churcher and Lawton, 1987, May and Norton, 1996, Barratt, 1998, Fitzgerald and Turner, 2000, Lepczyk et al., 2003). In places where nature conservation is a priority, such as protected areas and national parks, predation by domestic animals, including both cats and dogs, may pose distinct threats. Risks include predation on prey species (Harper, 2007, Medina and Nogales, 2009, Dickman, 2009, Vanak and Gompper, 2010, Young et al., 2011), competition with native animals (Phillips et al., 2007, Watanabe et al., 2003, Glen and Dickman, 2005, Vanak and Gompper, 2010), transmission of infectious agents to wildlife (Butler et al., 2004, Suzán and Ceballos, 2005, Mendes-de-Almeida et al., 2007, Robertson, 2008) and hybridization with native carnivores, including domestic cats with European wildcats (Germain et al., 2008, Oliveira et al., 2008, Hertwig et al., 2009) and domestic dogs with gray wolves and dingoes (Savolainen et al., 2004, Elledge et al., 2008, Randi, 2008). A solution to this problem is therefore essential for effective conservation of wildlife (Calver et al., 2011, Silva-Rodríguez and Sieving, 2011).
In an effort to mitigate ecological impacts of outdoor cats by reducing the extent to which the roam away from households, Poland's Animal Protection Act of 2002 legalized lethal control of free-ranging cats, particularly those that might potentially threaten wildlife. Specifically, according to the regulation, “…it is legal to shoot free-ranging cats and dogs found at least 200 metres from the nearest household…” and “…the animal must look as abandoned (feral), malnourished and should pose a threat to wildlife…”. The Act, however, is somewhat ambiguous and can be misused as it does not define “free-ranging” or “feral” animals. Moreover, the regulations were based on weak and dated evidence of the ranging behaviour and potential impacts of cats (Ryszkowski et al., 1973, Pielowski, 1976, Romanowski, 1988) and dogs (Okarma et al. 1995) on local wildlife, primarily through anecdotal reports from foresters and game managers not supported by scientific research conducted in Poland. The growing number of cats and dogs in Poland is an increasing problem and has raised a series of prolonged public disputes.
To date, no reliable information exists on the ranging behaviour and thus possible impacts of domestic cats on wildlife and on protected ecosystems in Poland. In addition, in Poland specifically, no prior studies have evaluated activity and space use of domestic cats with radio-tracking techniques. Thus, our main research goal was to assess the space use of male and female free-ranging domestic cats within Ojcow National Park (ONP) in southern Poland. Consistent with prior studies (Yamane et al., 1994, Say and Pontier, 2004, Guttilla and Stapp, 2010), we expected that home ranges would vary with gender. We also examined the extent of movement of cats from household feeding stations, and estimated how this might reduce the effective protected area of the national park. If the legislation restricting free-ranging cats effectively reduced ranging behaviour and potential ecological impacts of outdoor cats, then we would expect cats in the national park would be largely restricted to households, particularly within the designated 200 m limit.
Section snippets
Study area
We conducted our study in Ojcow National Park (ONP), situated in the southern part of Krakowsko – Czestochowska Upland, Poland (50°12′N, 19°46′E). With 22 km2 of total core area and 2.5 km2 under strict reserve protection, it is the smallest national park in Poland. The core area is surrounded by a designated 68 km2 buffer zone, which is predominantly covered by fields, pastures and farm houses. Dominant habitats of the park consist of deciduous and mixed forests covering about 15 km2 of the study
Home ranges
We captured and fitted 19 cats with radio-collars, including four (two males, two females) in Maszyce, five (three males, two females) in Murownia and 10 (four males, six females) in Ojcow (Table 1). The cats were not neutered or spay. The duration of radio-tracking of each individual varied from 2 to 20 months. The number of fixes per individual ranged from 3 to 72 (mean ± SE = 23 ± 5 annually; Table 1).
In Ojcow, where we collected the most reliable data, the annual 100% MCP home range size varied
Discussion
Our results provide the first description of the space use of free-ranging domestic cats in Poland, and an unusual example of cat activity and encroachment in a national park. Home ranges of domestic cats occupying rural farmlands or forests tend to be considerably larger than those living in urban and suburban areas (Barrat, 1997, Kays and DeWan, 2004, van Heezik et al., 2010, Tschanz et al., 2011). The average annual home range sizes of monitored cats in forests of the ONP (males: 0.79 km2,
Conclusions
Many studies have suggested the need to diminish detrimental effects of housecats on natural ecosystems, with special emphasis on protected areas that house diverse assemblages of native prey species (Dickman, 2009, Morgan et al., 2009, Tennent et al., 2009, Dauphiné and Cooper, 2011). According to Poland's Animal Protection Act of 2002, at least some of the cats in our study could be shot, particularly if they appear feral and pose a threat to wildlife, as the mean distance they roamed from
Acknowledgements
The research was partially sponsored by Polish Hunting Association, the Jagiellonian University (DS/756, grants: CRBW/K-VI-42/2003 and EVK2-CT-2002-80009). The research on domestic cats was performed with the permission of the Local Bioethical Commission in Krakow (52/OP/2002) and the Director of Ojcow National Park (ONP) Mr. Rudolf Suchanek. We acknowledge with special thanks Dr. Józef Partyka (ONP) whose interest, enthusiasm and observations facilitated the study. We would like to thank
References (83)
- et al.
Home range sizes of wildcats (Felis silvestris) and feral domestic cats (Felis silvestris f. catus) in a hilly region of Hungary
Mamm. Biol.
(2004) - et al.
Feral cats: their role in the population dynamics of Felis catus
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
(1999) - et al.
Free-ranging domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) as predator and prey in rural Zimbabwe: threats of competition and disease to large wild carnivores
Biol. Conserv.
(2004) - et al.
Reducing the rate of predation on wildlife by pet cats: the efficacy and practicability of collar – mounted pounce protectors
Biol. Conserv.
(2007) - et al.
Applying the precautionary principle to the issue of impacts by pet cats on urban wildlife
Biol. Conserv.
(2011) - et al.
Follow-up of the health conditions of an urban colony of free-roaming cats (Felis catus Linnaeus, 1758) in the city of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Vet. Parasitol.
(2007) - et al.
The efficacy of collar-mounted devices in reducing the rate of predation of wildlife by domestic cats
Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci.
(2005) A review of feral cat control
J. Feline Med. Surg.
(2008)- et al.
Spacing pattern in a social group of stray cats: effect on male reproductive success
Anim. Behav.
(2004) - et al.
Do domestic cats impose an unsustainable harvest on urban bird populations?
Biol. Conserv.
(2010)
Public preferences for free-ranging domestic cat (Felis catus) management options
Wildlife Soc. B
Domestic cat (Felis catus) and domestic dog (Canis familiaris)
Home range, habitat utilisation and movement patterns of suburban and farm cats Felis catus
Ecography
Predation by house cats, Felis catus (L.) in Canberra, Australia II factors affecting the amount of prey caught and estimates of the impact on wildlife
Wildlife Res.
The domestic cat as a predator of Israeli Wildlife
Isr. J. Ecol. Evol.
Predation by domestic cats in an English village
J. Zool.
Domestic cat “colonies” in natural areas: a growing exotic species threat
Nat. Area. J.
Mesopredator release and avifaunal extinctions in a fragmented system
Nature
Pick one: outdoor cats or conservation
Wildlife Prof.
House cats as predators in the Australian environment: impacts and management
Hum. Wildlife Conflict
An evaluation of genetic analyses, skull morphology and visual appearance for assessing dingo purity: implications for dingo conservation
Wildlife Res.
Human-related factors regulate the spatial ecology of domestic cats in sensitive areas for conservation
PLoS ONE
Home range of feral house cats (Felis catus) in forest of the Orongorongo Valley, Wellington, New Zealand
J. Ecol.
Hunting behaviour of domestic cats and their impact on prey populations
Spatio-temporal sharing between the European wildcat, the domestic cat and their hybrids
J. Zool.
Complex interactions among mammalian carnivores in Australia, and their implications for wildlife management
Biol. Rev.
Home range and movements of feral cats on Mauna Kea, Hawaii
Pac. Conserv. Biol.
Belled collars reduce catch of domestic cats in New Zealand by half
Wildlife Res.
Effects of sterilization on movements of feral cats at a wildland – urban interface
J. Mammal.
Spatial organization and habitat use of feral cats (Felis catus L.) Mediterranean California
Mammalia
Habitat selection of feral cats (Felis catus) on a temperate, forested island
Austral. Ecol.
Regionally high rates of hybridization and introgression in German wildcat populations (Felis silvestris, Carnivora, Felidae)
J. Zool. Syst. Evol. Res.
Managing feral cats on a university's campuses: how many are there and is sterilization having effect?
J. Appl. Anim. Welf. Sci.
Ecology of the feral cats, Felis catus (L.), in South-Eastern Australia. III. Home ranges and population ecology in semi-arid North-West Victoria
Aust. Wildlife Res.
Ecological impact of inside/outside house cats around a suburban nature preserve
Anim. Conserv.
Cat society and the consequence of colony size
Landowners and cat predation across rural- to urban landscapes
Biol. Conserv.
Humane strategies for controlling feral cat populations
J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc.
Food habits and prey impact by feral and house-based domestic cats in a rural area in southern Sweden
J. Mammal.
Spatial organisation and reproductive tactics in the domestic cat and other fields
Density, spatial organisation and reproductive tactics in the domestic cat and other felids
Cited by (26)
Free-roaming domestic cats in Natura 2000 sites of central Spain: Home range, distance travelled and management implications
2024, Applied Animal Behaviour ScienceFree-roaming domestic cats near conservation areas in Chile: Spatial movements, human care and risks for wildlife
2021, Perspectives in Ecology and ConservationCitation Excerpt :For example, unowned cats have been reported to have larger home ranges than owned cats (Horn et al., 2011). Home range size also differs by sex; male home ranges are described to be larger (Wierzbowska et al., 2012; Gehrt et al., 2013). It has also been reported that domestic cats prefer areas near human settlements and roads, whereas remote areas or forests are used less frequently (Ferreira et al., 2011).
A review of cat behavior in relation to disease risk and management options
2015, Applied Animal Behaviour ScienceCitation Excerpt :Although cats can move up to 200 km in a lifetime (Newsome, 1991) and there may be a substantial number of transient individuals within populations (Pettigrew, 1993), most cats have quite limited ranges. Males tend to have home ranges two to three times larger than those of females (e.g., Liberg and Sandell, 1994; Duffy and Capece, 2012; Gehrt et al., 2013) ranging from less than a hectare (Metsers et al., 2010; van Heezik et al., 2010) to nearly 300 ha (Gehrt et al., 2013) with average home ranges of less than 10 ha (Kays and DeWan, 2004; Lilith et al., 2008; van Heezik et al., 2010; Wierzbowska et al., 2013; Kitts-Morgan et al., 2015). Differences in home range size have been related to several factors, including breeding season, male access to female cats, whether or not they have been neutered, cat age, time of day, and prey availability (Liberg and Sandell, 1994; Barratt, 1997; Edwards et al., 2001).
Cat’s Paw: Tracking the Home Range of Domestic Cats in Mount Makiling Forest Reserve
2024, Philippine Journal of ScienceIntrinsic and extrinsic drivers of home range size in owned domestic cats Felis catus: Insights from a French suburban study
2024, Conservation Science and Practice