Smartphone Icon User Interface design for non-literate trackers and its implications for an inclusive citizen science
Graphical abstract
Introduction
With the advent of the Anthropocene the world is experiencing a period of rapid environmental change linked to human development (Corlett, 2015), such as habitat change, pollution, and climate change, which may affect ecosystem services gained from wildlife (Roy et al., 2015). Current rates of extinction are about 1000 times the background rate of extinction (Pimm et al., 2014). Monitoring biodiversity hotspots with high levels of diversity, as well as larger coldspots that are home to rare species (Kareiva and Marvier, 2003, Mouillot et al., 2013, Marchese, 2015) is therefore of increasing importance for informing conservation management (Sutherland et al., 2015).
There are too few professional ecologists to deal with the scale of environmental challenges. The development of citizen science has dramatically increased the extent and efficiency of data collection for studies in ecology and conservation (Dickinson et al., 2012, Pocock et al., 2015). Despite considerable differences in countries and cultures Danielsen et al. (2014a) found that community members and scientists produced similar results for the status of and trends in species and natural resources. Promoting community-based citizen science could therefore significantly enrich monitoring within global environmental conventions and enhanced decision making at all levels of resource management (Danielsen et al., 2014b).
However, global biodiversity conservation is seriously challenged by gaps in the geographical coverage of existing information. Wealth, language, geographical location and security each play an important role in explaining spatial variations in data availability. (Amano and Sutherland, 2013). Yet locally based monitoring is particularly relevant in developing countries, where it can lead to rapid decisions to solve the key threats affecting natural resources, and empower local communities to better manage their resources to improve local livelihoods (Danielsen et al., 2008, Danielsen et al., 2014c).
Large mammal fauna in Africa and Asia is being decimated by illegal hunting and loss of habitat. In the future trackers can play a critical role in preventing poaching of endangered species such as rhino, elephant and tigers.
The case studies discussed in this paper will demonstrate the value of employing trackers using smartphones in large-scale, long-term monitoring of ecosystems for conservation management, especially in areas in the developing world where there are gaps in the geographical coverage. In particular, trackers can be of great value for monitoring rare and endangered species.
Section snippets
The art of tracking and scientific reasoning
The art of tracking involves the creation of a working hypothesis on the basis of initial interpretation of signs, knowledge of the animal's behavior and knowledge of the terrain (Liebenberg, 1990). Since tracks may be partly obliterated or difficult to see, they may only exhibit partial evidence, so the reconstruction of the animal's activities must be based on creative hypotheses. To interpret the footprints, trackers must use their imagination to visualize what the animal was doing to create
Conclusion
Developing the CyberTracker Icon User Interface design for non-literate trackers demonstrated that indigenous trackers can gather complex and rich data. When employed in large numbers over extended periods of time, trackers can gather large quantities of biodiversity data that cannot be gathered in any other way, especially in areas where there are gaps in the geographical coverage. In particular, trackers can be of great value in monitoring rare and endangered species, since they can track
Dedication
After submitting the first draft of our manuscript, co-author !Nate Brahman passed away on 20 January 2016. Over the last 30 years !Nate played a central role in the development of the ideas, projects and software reviewed in this paper. In 1990 !Nate risked his own life to save the life of Liebenberg who almost died of heatstroke while running the persistence hunt (Liebenberg, 2006). We would like to dedicate this paper to his memory.
Conflict of interest
CyberTracker Conservation NPC is a non-profit Public Benefit Organization. Louis Liebenberg is the Executive Director and Justin Steventon the Lead Software Developer. The late !Nate Brahman, and Karel Benadie, James Minye, Horekhwe (Karoha) Langwane and Quashe (/Uase) Xhukwe played a central role in the field development of the CyberTracker software.
Acknowledgments
We would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive criticism and suggestions. The development of the CyberTracker software has been made possible with grants from the European Commission External Aid Contract ref. nr.: B7-6200/02/0407/TF, the JRS Biodiversity Foundation and Esri.
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2020, Biological ConservationCitation Excerpt :Programs also tend to target and involve groups of avid participants/hobbyists and not the general public (Fitzpatrick, 2012). However technology is allowing citizen science projects to cross cultural, language, literacy, and physical barriers (Bonney et al., 2014; Danielson et al., 2014; Hannibal, 2016; Kawrykow et al., 2012; Khatib et al., 2011; Liebenberg et al., 2017; Russell, 2014). Participants participate for many reasons.
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